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eum
Studies on the Value of Cultural Heritage
JOURNAL OF THE SECTION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE
University of Macerata
201
4
10
IL CAPITALE CULTURALE
Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism
Il Capitale culturale
Studies on the Value of Cultural Heritage
Vol. 10, 2014
ISSN 2039-2362 (online)
© 2014 eum edizioni università di macerata
Registrazione al Roc n. 735551 del 14/12/2010
Direttore
Massimo Montella
Coordinatore editoriale
Mara Cerquetti
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Pierluigi Feliciati
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Alessio Cavicchi, Mara Cerquetti, Francesca
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Mauro Saracco, Federico Valacchi
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Vitale
Comitato scientifi co
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Dinamiche economiche territoriali
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«Il capitale culturale», X (2014), pp. 521-545
ISSN 2039-2362 (online)
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© 2014 eum
The role of art in urban
gentrifi cation and regeneration:
aesthetic, social and economic
developments
* Luca Palermo, Dottore di Ricerca in Metodologie Conoscitive per la Conservazione e la
Valorizzazione dei Beni Culturali, Cultore della materia in Storia dell’arte contemporanea, Seconda
Università degli Studi di Napoli, Dipartimento di Lettere e Beni Culturali, Corso Aldo Moro, 232
- Complesso di San Francesco/Aulario di Via Perla, 81055 Santa Maria Capua Vetere, e-mail:
lucaplrm@gmail.com.
Luca Palermo*
Abstract
Cultural analyses of gentrifi cation have identifi ed the individual artist as an important
agent in the initiation of gentrifi cation processes: Public Art has been increasingly advocated
on the basis of a series of supposed contributions to urban regeneration since the 1980s. A
wide range of advocates have claimed that Public Art can help develop senses of identity,
to develop senses of place, contribute to civic identity, address community needs, tackle
social exclusion, possess educational value, promote social change, and encourage economic
developments.
This paper, through the analysis of some study cases, would like to underline the
importance of art, especially Public Art and its most recent developments, in urban
522 LUCA PALERMO
gentrifi cation and regeneration process. It is not only an aesthetic topic, but social and
economic too. Regeneration is defi ned as the renewal, revival, revitalization or transformation
of a place or community. It is a response to decline, or degeneration. Regeneration is both
a process and an outcome. It can have physical, economic and social dimensions, and the
three commonly coexist.
Cultural policy, and in particular Public Art, can be inclusionary/exclusionary as part of
the wider project of urban gentrifi cation and regeneration and can improve the quality of
public life and public spaces. Many cities all around the world have looked at the Public Art
such as a way to transform a space in a place. As case study I would like to describe the role
of Public Art in regeneration and gentrifi cation policies especially in the United Kingdom;
for example Coventry Phoenix Initiative in Coventry, Blue Carpet and other initiatives in
Newcastle upon Tyne, Up in the air and Further Up in the air in Liverpool and Sovereign
Housing in Bristol. All these initiatives try to enhance the environment by creating a strong
relationship and collaboration with the communities living there. They are interested in
processes more than just in creating a work of art.
Gli studi culturali hanno individuato nell’attività del singolo artista un fondamentale
punto di partenza nei processi di rinnovamento: l’arte pubblica a partire dagli anni Ottanta
del secolo scorso è stata sempre più spesso scelta come strumento di rigenerazione urbana.
Sono numerosi i contributi storici e critici che hanno dimostrato quanto l’arte pubblica
riesca ad incidere sullo sviluppo dell’identità collettiva, del senso di appartenenza ad una
comunità e, allo stesso tempo, riesca ad essere portavoce dei bisogni e delle necessità di
una comunità, a permettere una forte inclusione sociale, a trasmettere valori educativi, a
promuovere scambi sociali e ad essere volano di sviluppo economico territoriale.
Questo contributo, attraverso l’analisi di alcuni casi di studio, si pone come obiettivo
quello di evidenziare l’importanza dell’arte, specialmente dell’arte pubblica e dei suoi più
recenti sviluppi, nei processi di rigenerazione e rinnovamento urbano: non si tratta solo di
una questione estetica, ma anche di andare ad incidere sul tessuto sociale ed economico delle
zone interessate da questo tipo di interventi. La rigenerazione urbana, per tali ragioni, è, allo
stesso tempo, un punto di arrivo e di partenza di processi nei quali le dimensioni artistiche,
economiche e sociali coesistono e si infl uenzano. Le politiche culturali, specialmente quelle
connesse alle pratiche dell’arte pubblica, riescono, dunque, ad accrescere e migliorare la
qualità della vita e degli spazi pubblici.
Molte città in tutto il mondo si sono rivolte all’arte pubblica come strumento per
trasformare un anonimo spazio in un luogo caratterizzato in maniera unica. Ho scelto
di analizzare, come casi di studio, le politiche culturali legate all’arte pubblica messe in
atto da alcune città del Regno Unito: l’iniziativa Coventry Phoenix della città di Coventry,
Blue Carpert e altri progetti promossi dalla città di Newcastle upon Tyne, Up in the Air e
Further Up in the Air fortemente voluti dalla città di Liverpool. Tutte queste iniziative sono
accomunate dal tentativo di migliorare l’ambiente urbano creando relazioni e collaborazioni
con le comunità che di esso quotidianamente usufruiscono e che in esso vivono.
523
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
1. Introduction
One of the major UK reviews undertaken by Graeme Evans and Phyllida
Shaw for the Department of Culture, Media and Sport entitled The Contribution
of Culture to Regeneration in the UK: A Review of Evidence, published in
2004, contains a practical defi nition of regeneration:
Regeneration can be defi ned as the transformation of a place (residential, commercial or
open space) that has displayed the symptoms of environmental (physical), social and/or
economic decline. Regeneration can have the effect of breathing new life and vitality into
an ailing community, industry and area [bringing] sustainable, long term improvements to
local quality of life, including economic, social and environmental needs. We are looking
for evidence of culture as a driver, a catalyst or at the very least a key player in the process
of regeneration, or renewal1.
Since the 1980’s, arts, especially Public Art, and cultural activities have become
an increasingly important part of urban regeneration in the UK, Europe and all
around the world. In many parts of the world, cultural facilities and activities
are being exploited as a “driver” or an important player in physical, economic
and social regeneration. Renewal, revival, revitalisation and transformation of
a place or community are all part of the meaning of regeneration. It is a clear
response to decline or degeneration and it could be considered both a process
and an outcome.
Academic and political interest in regeneration processes led by art, culture
and creativity is growing. This is evident, for example, in international initiatives
such as UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network (2005), in comparative studies
such as Creative Spaces (2005)2, and academic journals such as Cultural Policy
(2004), Local Economy (2004), Urban Studies (2005), Cities (2006).
As already mentioned, towns and cities have been developing cultural,
or creative industries, quarters and clusters since the 1980s. According to
McCarthy (2005), cultural quarters
may involve uses related to cultural production or cultural consumption, or both, and
further spatial concentration is assumed to lead to synergy, agglomeration economies and
minimization of amenity loss. However, the designation of such quarters is contested.
Firstly, the notion of cultural clustering and designation of cultural quarters in principle
may be questioned in terms of its contribution to urban regeneration; and secondly, there
is contention over the optimum orientation of such quarters– for instance, whether they
should be oriented primarily towards consumption, production or both3.
Moving on, O’ Connor (2006) emphasizes the importance of choosing arts
and culture in order to respond to the specifi c historical, spatial and social
1 Evans, Shaw 2004, p. 4.
2 Evans et al. 2006.
3 McCarthy 2005, pp. 280-293.
524 LUCA PALERMO
context of each place: «Creative industries create economic value in cities, but
require sustained and cumulative intelligence and experience which balances
economic and cultural dimensions»4.
The main aim of this paper is to examine some case studies in which Public
Art and cultural initiatives are widely used in urban contexts under the banner
of regeneration and gentrifi cation (as engine of urban regeneration) to achieve
some degree of social impact. In order to do that, I will propose some examples
of socially committed Public Art, exploring the contribution of Public Art to
the achievement of social benefi t through the involvement of citizens in place-
making processes.
I think it is important to underline that there are different interpretations as to
what may be considered Public Art. Miwon Kwon, in her essay, For Hamburg:
Public Art and Urban Identities, distinguished three different paradigms of
Public Art that could be schematically described in this way:
1. art in public places, typically a modernist abstract sculpture placed outdoors to
“decorate” or “enrich” urban spaces, especially plaza areas fronting federal buildings or
corporate offi ce towers.
2. art as public spaces, less object-oriented and more site-conscious art that seeks
greater integration between art, architecture and the landscape through the collaboration
of artists with members of the urban managerial class (architects, landscape architects, city
planners, urban designers, and city administrators) in the designing of permanent urban
(re)development projects such as parks, plazas, buildings, promenades, neighborhoods, etc.
3. art in the public interest (or “new genre Public Art”), often temporary, city-
based programs focusing on social issues rather than the built environment that involve
collaborations with marginalized social groups such as the homeless, battered women,
urban youths, AIDS patients, prisoners (rather than design professionals), and which strive
for the development of politically-conscious community events or programs5.
According to Miwon Kwon there has been a broad shift in the practice of
art over the past thirty years; we have seen a shift of emphasis from aesthetic
concerns to social issues. I think that it is possible to add that we have also seen a
shift from the idea of a work of art as an object to art as an ephemeral process and
from permanent installations to temporary interventions in the social context.
Starting from that, it is possible to say that place-making processes could
have a strong infl uence on social inclusion in communities; that art could be an
important and constitutive element of regeneration and gentrifi cation policies,
and that art could also have a social and economic impact.
In 1994, the Policy Studies Institute summarized some physical, environmental
and economic problems that Public Art can contribute to resolving. It was
argued that Public Art is able to: contribute to local distinctiveness; attract
companies and investment; have a role in cultural tourism; add to land values;
4 O’Connor 2006, p. 3.
5 Kwon 1997, pp. 30-35.
525
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
create employment; increase the use of open spaces; reduce wear and tear on
buildings and lower levels of vandalism6.
Arts’ advocates have argued that Public Art could help rejuvenate social
connections by promoting community discovery and awareness and by
enhancing social connections, «It’s about community building», as Pat
Benincasa has argued, «not simply building something for the community»7. In
this way, Public Art could be one of the best vehicles through which a sense of
community can be developed and promoted.
There are a lot of essays and contributions to the literature that argue that
Public Art could improve the spaces of public culture, “humanizing” depressing
urban forms. As regards this contention, I think the words of Swales are very
important because he has argued that Public Art, «has been promoted as a way
of enhancing well-being in cities, improving dismal spaces and uplifting bland
lives»8. I would add that Public Art can improve safety, reduce fear of public
space and can have a communicative function, generating and facilitating the
exchange of ideas and opinions between people across physical space. In this
way, Public Art and cultural activities are able to develop a strong sense of place
too.
According to the advocates of Public Arts, sense of place aims to develop an
awareness of tradition or identity unique to place and to furnish places with
unique physical identities through the creation of artwork unique to sites. The
words of John Dungey, member of the multi-arts organization The Company
of the Imagination are illuminating,
We […] believe that our relationships with places are as important as our relationship with
people. And because places, like the arts, feed our senses, our emotions and our spirit and
fi re our imagination, we, in turn, want to nurture places and do all we can to ensure that
what we value is not destroyed9.
These sentiments are echoed by Common Ground,
In encouraging people to commission craftspeople and sculptors to crystallise feelings about
their place in a public and permanent way, we are emphasising that our feelings about
everyday landscapes are important and should be taken seriously10.
The use of art and culture can also address community needs helping
communities to understand their problems and facilitating their solution; Public
Art, and art activity generally, is able to address the aesthetic improvement of
6 Policy Studies Institute 1994, p.38.
7 Quoted by Skarjune 1993, p. 19.
8 Swales 1992, p. 63.
9 Dungey 1990, p. 12.
10 Clifford 1990, p. 15.
526 LUCA PALERMO
environments, contribute to the environmental regeneration of cities, and offer
a possibility of economic recovery.
For all these reasons, Public Art is not only art in public spaces, but also, and
I think especially, art in the public sphere; a kind of art that can raise social,
political and economic issues and that is able to activate public debate.
Relatively recent regeneration, gentrifi cation and redevelopment policies are
increasingly looking at the power of art and culture as means of leading the so-
called “urban renaissance”11 that is considered nowadays to be one of the most
successful strategies for countering urban decay. What I would like to underline
is the existence of different regeneration models although all of them use culture
as a tool in all their strategic actions and consider Public Art such as a vehicle
able to integrate the social, the physical and the economic dimensions of the
regeneration (i.e. place-making, education, job creation, cultural participation
and civic engagement).
I think that in choosing art (Public Art) and culture as an engine for
regeneration and gentrifi cation of urban spaces it is necessary to not consider
the public space as an empty space to be fi lled with whatever work of art, and
to consider citizenship as an active part of the aesthetic processes. In this way,
the spectator becomes “spect-actor” and the artist becomes “spect-author’12.
There are some different approaches to Public Art considered as art
masterpieces located in publicly visible spaces. The fi rst approach has as its
main goal the raising of the international profi le of the city by locating a work
of art in regenerated areas or areas under regeneration. A second approach to
publicness makes reference to the public spaces where Public Art installations
or events are located. The main aim of this second approach is the re-branding
of the city and the celebration of the resurgence of the city. In a third approach,
provocative pieces of art are installed in public spaces. In this case, the word
“public” refers not only to the work of art in a public space, but also to a strong
link to the concept of public sphere; the work of art is not only a decoration
or a complement to the environment, but also has provocative meanings and
is able to start a dialogue between different people. A more recent approach
considers the practice of Public Art as a vehicle to establish a collaboration and
strong relations between the artist and the local community involved in the art
project. Finally, it is possible to identify a fi fth approach in which places and
population are targeted by area-based regeneration programmes.
11 For further details about “urban renaissance” refer to Rogers 1999; Department of Transport,
Local Government, and the Regions (DTLR) 2000; Atkinson 2002; Lees 2003, pp. 2487-2510.
12 The idea of spect-actor and spect-author has been created by Augusto Boal to describe those
engaged in his theatre. It refers to the dual role of those involved in the process as both spectator
and actor, as they both observe and create dramatic meaning and action in any performance. Boal
was infl uenced by the interactive Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970) of the educator and theorist
Paulo Freire. For this reason he called his theatre Theatre of the Oppressed.
527
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
2. Case studies
As already mentioned, in The UK and Europe, cultural projects have played
in an increasingly important role in urban regeneration since the mid-1980s. It is
important to underline that an increasing interest is being shown in participatory
arts programmes because they are low-cost, fl exible and responsive to local
needs. This kind of use of art and culture coincides with a shift in cultural
policies and regeneration strategies that consider local people as the principal
asset through which renewal can be achieved. In the United States, since the late
1960s artists and cultural organizations have shown how they can contribute to
urban renewal thanks to the creation of cultural quarters in the city and in urban
spaces. In the 1980s, British and European cities began to look at the American
experiences in regeneration to fi nd a solution to their economic problems. The
most important criterion for the selection of works of art and for the use of
cultural activity to fuel urban regeneration was an economic criterion. We only
have to think that a survey carried out in the UK by The Policy Studies Institute,
The Economic Importance of the Arts in Britain, presented the arts as employer
of 500.000 people and as the fourth biggest invisible export earner13.
In those years, Luke Ritter, as Secretary-General of the Arts Council, wrote
in the Foreword to An Urban Renaissance that
urban renewal continues to be high on the national agenda. The architecture and quality
of life in our cities are subjects of debate throughout the country […]. The arts are making
a substantial contribution to the revitalisation of our cities […]. Arts activities provide a
community with a focus and increases its sense of identity […] an increased awareness of the
community’s needs, a determination to achieve change […]. Art in public places enhances
the value of developments for years to come14.
Britain and Western Europe have shown a number of important benefi ts
arising from cultural programmes and from the use of works of art, especially
Public Art, in urban gentrifi cation and regeneration: enhanced social cohesion,
improved local image, reduced offending behaviour, promotion of interest in the
local environment, development of self-confi dence, the building of private and
public sector partnerships, the exploration of identities and the enhancement of
the organisational capacity of individuals and communities.
In 1991 the Arts Council of Great Britain commissioned Percent for Art:
a Review; where is possible to read about all the benefi ts associated with the
commission of Public Art works:
to make a place more interesting and attractive; to make contemporary arts and crafts more
accessible to the public; to highlight the identity of different parts of a building or community;
to increase a city’s/country’s/ or company’s investment in the arts; to improve conditions for
13 Myerscough 1988.
14 Arts Council 1989, p. 6.
528 LUCA PALERMO
economic regeneration by creating a richer visual environment; to create employment for
artists, craftspeople, fabricators, suppliers and manufacturers of materials, and transporters;
to encourage closer links between artists and craftspeople and the professions that shape our
environment: architecture, landscaping, engineering and design15.
The artist’s ability to see and to face the problems from a different point
of view and a different perspective can offer new solutions and this is very
important and almost vital for urban regeneration.
All that I have said previously leads to asking one important question: what is
special about art? If we look at the dozens of examples in which arts programmes
have brought a positive contribution to local vitality and urban regeneration,
renewal and gentrifi cation, it is easy to fi nd some special characteristics that the
arts have. Arts programmes engage people’s creativity and so lead to problem to
solution; they enable dialogue between people and community; they encourage
questioning and by doing so they offer the possibility to fi nd solutions for a better
future; a direct consequence of this is that arts programmes offer a way for the self-
expression which is an essential part of the active citizenship; fi nally working with
art and artists is intellectually stimulating and, at the same time, it is entertaining.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that arts programmes are not the only solution
or an alternative to regeneration initiatives like environmental improvements,
training schemes or youth development projects and initiatives, but they can be
an important component of regeneration and gentrifi cation policies and can have
a signifi cant effect in a given situation. As regards the above, the words of Zukin
are very interesting; he has argued that «the boom in these sectors [Public Art]
of business services […] infl uenced sharp rises in the real estate and art markets
in which their leading members were so active». Then, «investment in art, for
prestige or speculation, represented a collective means of social mobility»16. This
is sustained also by Selwood who have argued that
the fact that works by such prestigious artists as Richard Serra, Jim Dine, and George Segal
are integrated into Rosehaugh Stanhope’s Broadgate development doubtless contributed to
attracting major American, European and Japanese companies to locate there17.
Cultural expressions offer to the city an opportunity to return to the classical
urban values of civic pride, cultural identity and local independence. As a result,
there is a growing interest in the role of the arts and wider cultural factors in
restoring something of the quality of urban life.
Before speaking about some case studies, it is important to underline that
the process of searching out and choosing some examples of the successful use
of the arts in urban regeneration, gentrifi cation and renewal has led me to form
some conclusions as regards the key factors in that success.
15 Arts Council 1991, p. 16.
16 Zukin 1996, p. 45.
17 Selwood 1992, p. 21.
529
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
Starting points for a successful project are the enthusiasm and determination
of all those who take part in the project: patrons, artists, local citizens and
occasional visitors. In order to an artistic intervention to make successful, it
is very important that it is able to strengthen the sense of identity of the place
where it takes place; identity is about creating a distinguishing character that
draws on the unique nature of a place and its people. Zukin wrote regarding
identity:
By the 1990s, it is understood that making a place for art in the city goes along with
establishing a place identity for the city as a whole. No matter how restricted the defi nition
of art that is implied, or how few artists are included, or how little the benefi ts extend to
other social groups outside certain segments of the middle class, the visibility and viability
of a city’s symbolic economy plays an important role in the creation of place18.
It is also necessary to be able to identify weaknesses and to turn them
into strengths; the arts share a capacity to identify potential in the seemingly
intractable and diffi cult. What seems to have no economic value is interpreted
by the artists as a starting point for the development of regeneration and
gentrifi cation projects19. The presence of artists and other cultural producers
in declining urban areas can help to break cycles of decline; a weakness can
become a strength if looked at from different point of view.
Finally, regeneration is not an end in itself; it is about people and the quality
of their lives. For this reason, involving people in renewal and regeneration
projects it is not only essential for the longer term viability of the project, but
also to inspire further ideas and participation. In such processes, Ley suggests
that «the urban artist is commonly the expeditionary force for inner-city
gentrifi ers»20 and these kinds of processes involve an aesthetic evaluation of the
urban landscape, «It is the aesthetic eye that transform ugliness into a source
of admiration»21.
3. Coventry Phoenix Initiative, Coventry
Coventry is a city in the heart of England, roughly halfway between London
and Manchester. The Conventry Phoenix Initiative is the most important
regeneration project for Coventry since the city was re-built following its
18 Zukin 1996, p. 45.
19 One of the fi rst exemplary cases of such dynamics has been the total rethinking of a site
abandoned by the Washington Gas Company in downtown Seattle in the 1956; in the 1970 the
architect Richard Haag was commissioned to convert it into a park: the Gas Works Park was
opened in the 1975 and has quickly become a landmark for the local population.
20 Ley 1996, p. 191.
21 Ivi, p. 301.
530 LUCA PALERMO
destruction during the Second World War. The master-plan was initiated by the
City Council in 1997, and involves the creation of a route through Coventry’s
central city area. According to the City Council, the master-plan was a sort
of a metaphorical journey through the past, the present and the future of the
city, starting from the Cathedral which had been bombed during the Second
World War and rebuilt by Sir Basil Specer, from the periphery of the city centre
up to the prospective of the future represented by the Garden of International
Friendship. As already mentioned, this project could be considered as a kind of
reconciliation between history and the future.
The route begins at the Priory Garden where archaeology and the cloisters provide an
immediate link to 1,000 years of history. The Millennium Gate at the city centre, now
marked by the Whittle Arch, signifi es the present and a future of optimism and cooperation.
It is also posited at the end by the Garden of International Friendship22.
Richard MacCormac, one the best urban designers in the United Kingdom,
has been involved in the project. He has always pursued an idea of design
based on the integration of art, public and urban spaces. This theme is central
for MacCormac’s evolving view on art and architecture where he suggests that
artists are extending the range of architecture by engaging with the subject
matter of site.
The master-plan provides a pedestrian route with new destinations along
the way that encourage people to stay in the heart of the city longer: a support
for local businesses. One of the most important long term aims was reviving
interest in and raising local and national awareness of the city of Coventry.
The project has created a series of connected new public spaces, two new
public squares (The Priory Cloister and Millenium Place), two beautiful new
gardens (Priory Garden and The Garden of International Friendship) and a lot
of cafes, bars and shops. It has also created a lot of new interest in the area and
attracted new investments.
The Coventry Phoenix Initiative has added signifi cant value to Coventry’s city centre,
injecting new community life as well as economic life into the area. It is certain that the
project’s long-term legacy to Coventry will be of great benefi t for many years into the
future23.
What is interesting about the project is the fact that it is not only an
intervention on the urban structure, but an extensive Public Art programme
too. In this project, each artwork is integral to the design and context of each
new space and draws on local history and tradition to provide a new exciting
urban experience. The close connection between works of art and their siting
perfectly embodies the notion of site-specifi c artworks. The Coventry Phoenix
22 Waterman 2009, p. 148.
23 Ivi, p. 162.
531
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
Initiative is, therefore, an interesting case due to its ability to create a dialogue,
a strong relationship and an intense collaboration between urban designers,
architects and artists. This means that each artwork will posses and shape the
newly created spaces rather than be placed within them. Equally interesting are
the criteria of selection of the artists and artworks; this process was delegated to
a forum, representing the different interests in the city, who selected artists from
a shortlist drawn up by the Public Art Commissions Agency (PACA). This is a
clear example of a regeneration project in which the citizenship plays an active
role; in this way it strengthens the sense of belonging, identity and sense of place.
Completed in 2004, the regeneration scheme has created new public gardens
and two civic squares and has already led to new commercial investment on the
site including new apartments to provide the city centre with its fi rst residents.
Let me now examine in more detail some of the main changes to the
Coventry’s urban landscape: the Priory Cloister and Garden, the Millenium
Place and the Garden of International Friendship.
3. 1 The Priory Garden and the Priory Cloister
The removal of a 1950s church hall built over the medieval St. Mary’s Priory
has enabled the remains of the Priory to be revealed in a new garden. The Priory
Garden and the Priory Cloister (fi g. 1) are both inspired by their setting on the
site of Coventry’s excavated 11th Century Priory Cathedral that was destroyed
during the Dissolution in the 16th Century. The Priory Garden is inserted in the
excavated nave of the original Benedictine Priory. The contemplative nature of
this place is well represented by the mosaic of Christine Browne Cofa’s Tree
(from which the name Coventry is believed to have derived) representing the
growth of Coventry and installed in 2001.
The Priory Garden, designed by the Rummey Design Associates, has a
quadrant of pleached lime trees that recall the contemplative nature of a monastic
cloister. In this place, the artist David Ward has created a sound installation
that gives the impression that there are voices murmuring in the branches of
the trees. Archaeological details in the Priory Garden are highlighted and
celebrated with vitrines – glass display cases. This detail shows the materials
and methods of construction as well as the intended relationship between the
viewers and the vitrines.
3.2 Millenium Place
The Millenium Place (fi g. 2) is an extraordinary new public square for
the City of Coventry. It is dominated by the twin, stainless steel-clad Whittle
Arches, designed by MJP (MacCormac Jamieson Prichard) and Whitby Bird,
532 LUCA PALERMO
which act as a landmark gateway to Millenium Place. This new square offers
opportunities for open-air concerts and plays and other cultural events.
The artist, François Scheinhas, designed a work of art for the Millenium
Place which alludes to Coventry’s history as a centre for clock-crafting. The
work consists of a large clock based on the time zones of the world represented
by linear LED displays set into the pavement. Each linear display lights up as
the sun rises over the time zone it represents so that by midnight the entire
display is illuminated.
The north boundary to Millenium Place is defi ned by a radial wall. Here we
can see the People’s Bench designed by the German artist Jochen Gerz. This
artist was chosen because his past works had dealt with the themes of memory
and reconciliation. Gerz’s idea is that visitors will be able to buy a little steel
token like a coin; the token must be inscribed with two names and then it will
be glued into a pre-drilled hole in the bench. In this way, people from all around
the world are able leave a moment of themselves.
Another important intervention in Millenium Place is a sandstone ramp
that allows the visitor to have aerial views of both Jochen Gerz’s and François
Schein’s work. The ramp becomes a spiral which is then transformed in a
bridge which spans over the medieval city wall and leads to the Garden of
International Friendship. The spiral is an innovative structure by Dewhurst
McFarlane and has no central supports and is anchored at both ends by a 14m
diameter cantilever. The steel structure of the spiral and bridge is enclosed in an
installation of glass designed by the artist Alex Beleschenko.
3.3 The Garden of International Friendship
This is a collaborative project between Rummey Design Associates and
British artist Kate Whiteford. The idea behind its construction was to give
visitors the image of the city of Coventry as a city of international peace and
reconciliation. Kate Whiteford has created a work composed of a fragment of
a huge maze in white marble chippings and planted box hedges, based on a
pattern take from a mediaeval fl oor tile (fi g. 3). In front of it, a wall is inscribed
with lines of text from newly composed Coventry carols by poet David Morley.
4. Blue Carpet, Newcastle upon Tyne
In 1994, Newcastle City Council (NCC) carried out a feasibility study into
the potential for regenerating the physical environment of the city centre and
stimulating economic activity.
When the project was conceived, the Angel of the North Public Artwork by
Antony Gormley had recently been erected in nearby Gateshead and this had
533
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
greatly helped the regeneration of the town, “The primary motivation for the
creation of Public Art is to provide a sense of place through unique works of art
visible daily to the public which help to create a quality environment”24.
The success of the project is connected to the ability to collaborate and to
the creation of a consortium of public and private sector organisations with a
presence or interest in the area of the Blue Carpet project.
Blue Carpet is an innovative project which has created a new public square
outside the Laing Art Gallery in the city centre of Newcastle upon Tyne. This
is one of the most interesting cases of a city centre regeneration. In 1996,
Newcastle City Council, aiming to involve an artist in the creation of the
new space, launched an international ideas competition, inviting a number of
artists with experience in Public Art commissions, site specifi c and integrated
designs to submit design ideas. After a two-stage selection process, Thomas
Heatherwick Studios of London were awarded for the project by the selection
panel. The proposed project was truly innovative; rather than design and install
a sculptural work, Thomas Heatherwick Studios suggested a creative concept
for the design of the whole place. They started from function rather than art,
and it become clear that the square itself was an artwork.
Once Thomas Heatherwick Studios had been appointed, a group of local
businessmen and residents met periodically with the design team throughout
the design and the implementation of the project. The project was completed in
autumn 2001 and the offi cial opening was in Febraury 2002. It was conceived
as a resting place for shoppers or workers in their lunch hour within the busy
commercial area of Newcastle, especially as Newcastle city centre is relatively
short of public open space. Since the offi cial opening, the Blue Carpet project
has provided a sociable space which is used by the people of the city and visitors.
The project (1,4 million pounds for an area of 1300 m2) was funded by the Arts
Lottery Fund, European Improvement Fund and NCC. The main aim of this
project was that it should appear as if it were a carpet loosely laid down on
the space with edges curled up and seats uncurling from within the carpet with
fl uorescent lighting below designed to encourage night time use.
The surface of the new public square was completely covered by recycled
blue glass (the paving consists of slabs made from the crushed glass of the blue
bottles of a particular brand of sherry, mixed with white resin) which seems to
have apparently dropped from the sky over the existing surface of the city (fi g.
4). The seats in the new square are an integral part of the design. Created by
cutting the carpet and turning it upside down (fi gg. 5-6),
by creating benches which appeared to be strips cut from the carpet, he also created voids
which could be fi lled with coloured neon tubes. Lights could be installed beneath the bollards,
shining up through the punctured fabric. In this way, it appeared that the whole carpet had
24 Gateshead Council 2006 (quoted by Van der Graff 2008, p. 233).
534 LUCA PALERMO
been laid over some bright molten material which shone through gaps and fi ssures, rather as
if the lava fl ow was still there but smothered beneath a rug25.
It is clear that:
the Blue Carpet is essentially a paving scheme, but unlike conventional repaving, it does not
fi t tidily inside the usual boundaries provided by adjacent buildings and road kerbs. Instead,
it has been laid, like an irregular mat, into a space which is itself oddly shaped26.
Rather than Public Art, I think it makes more sense to talk about urban
design. As already indicated, is not a piece of sculpture or a monument placed
in open and public space; it is an intervention that affects the urban landscape
as a whole. The Blue Carpet was intended to complement the existing buildings
and give the city a contemporary icon. Martin Callanan, Conservative MEP
for the North East, argued that, «The carpet is the unifying concept behind the
design − it introduces humour, interest, colour and drama to a setting which
contains a mix of building types and has no defi ning character»27.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that, since the inauguration of the square in
July of 2002, the number of visitors to the Laing Art Gallery have increased
by 57%. The Blue Carpet project also won the Paviors Award 2002, an award
established in 2000 to signal excellence in the design and construction of urban
pavements.
Newcastle’s regeneration is about making the city a better place to live in,
work in and visit. As a tourist destination, Newcastle Upon Tyne was voted,
from 2002 to 2005, the best city to visit in England by Guardian/Observer
readers, was voted “Best City in the North” by Daily Telegraph readers in
April 2007 and named “New Capital of Britain” by The Times in 2004 . It’s
not diffi cult to see why; the city is synonymous with fun, boasting a plethora
of restaurants, bars and clubs, a fantastic retail offer, art galleries and cultural
attractions.
5. Up in the Air and Further Up in the Air, Liverpool
Up in the Air (2000-2001) and Further Up in the Air (2001-2004) were
two ambitious programmes of artists’ residencies in Sheil Park, Liverpool.
They were initiated and managed by artists Neville Gabie and Leo Fitzmaurice.
The initiatives were an important part of the regeneration and redevelopment
25 Thompson et al., p. 244.
26 Ivi, p. 239; for further details about the Blue Carpet project refer to Morlanj 2000.
27 Cit. in BBC News (2002), “City Rolls Out Blue Carpet”, available on-line at <http://news.
bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/1781559.stm>, 10.12.2014.
535
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
programme of the whole Sheil Park area that included the demolition of existing
1960s tower blocks and the creation of high quality new homes (fi g. 7).
Over a period of four years, these buildings became the creative backdrop for
new works made on site by twenty-fi ve artists. Now, the tower blocks have been
demolished, and the goal of redeveloping the neighborhood in order to attract
new investment and create a more thriving real estate market has been achieved.
The fi rst residency programme, Up in the Air, consisted of month-long artist
residencies based in Kenley Close, one of the tower blocks on the Sheil Park
estate. All ten artists involved in the project were in residence at the same time,
from August to September 2000. The ten artists resident on site for a month
got a fee of £1,000, inclusive of expenses and materials. The value of the tower
block opportunity to each participating artist was much more than the fi nancial
reward. Some chose to stay on beyond the initial month of the residency, using
the fl ats as free studio space. Some came back later to work on additional
projects.
The aim of the project was to select and invite some artists to live and work
in buildings earmarked for demolition as part of a project of development and
regeneration led by Liverpool Housing Action Trust (LHAT). No guidance or
theme was imposed on the artists nor was any particular work of art or the use
of a particular artistic medium requested.
The Liverpool Housing Action Trust was set up by the British Government
to improve and redevelop the high-rise blocks across Liverpool. For this reason,
in early 2000, the LHAT adopted an art policy made up of three strands of
cultural activity: community art, arts education and involvement and Public
Art.
Behind the project, there was a great opportunity to bring a group of artists
and creative people working together into an environment traditionally outside
the contemporary art circuit. It was a great opportunity for the artists to spend
time with and engage with the residents.
The artists developed the project organically with the help and support of residents. The
projects came at a traumatic time for residents who, although being relocated into improved
new housing, were also facing the loss of places that had been family homes for many years.
One effect of the artists’ work was to promote a sense of confi dence and optimism among
the new residents at a point of uncertainty in their lives. Over 60 residents participated
directly with many more visiting exhibitions and events.
The residents will be going through a major transition in their lives. They will literally be
moving from having a vertical street to a horizontal one; moving from a high rise block,
that has been their home for many years, to new bungalow accommodation on the same
site. The objectives of this artist-led project are to get artists from a broad range of media to
produce work about the transition28.
28 <http://www.eightdaysaweek.org.uk/upintheair2000.htm>, 10.12.2014.
536 LUCA PALERMO
The artists involved in the fi rst phase of the project were: Leo Fitzmaurice,
Neville Gabie, Grennan & Sperandio, Dirk Konigsfeld, Kelly Large and Becky
Shaw, Philip Reilly, George Shaw, and Chloe Steele: all these artists had the
merit of placing the emphasis on the process and the legacy rather than outcomes
and outputs. The artworks produced by the artists belonged to them at the end
of their residence period, nevertheless, many of the artists have chosen to leave
the works to the residents in order for them to display them in the community
centre which was to become part of the new housing estate. An exhibition of
the works of art produced during the Up in the Air project was held at Kirbhy
Gallery in Liverpool.
The success of Up in the Air has convinced the curators and the Liverpool
Housing Action Trust to develop a second phase of residencies. Further Up in the
Air was a long-term project that has evolved and developed from the experience
of the earlier project. This second project involved eighteen artists and writers
working in Linosa Close, another tower block on the Sheil Park estate.
The curators’ intention was to create synergies between artists and locals.
The idea was to invite artists that use a broad range of mediums and disciplines
to discover what a video artist, a painter, a sculptor, a photographer or a writer
would attempt to capture in what they found during their stay (fi g. 8). 18 artists
were commissioned over a 3 year period: Jordon Baseman, Vittorio Bergamaschi,
Catherine Bertola, Marcus Coates, Bill Drummond, Leo Fitzmaurice, Anna
Fox, Neville Gabie, Stefan Gec, Lothar Gotz, Gary Perkins, David Mabb, Paul
Rooney, Will Self, Julian Stallabrass, Greg Streak, Tom Woolford, Elizabeth
Wright.
The fi rst group of artists were in residence in Linosa Close during spring
2002, the second group during late summer/autumn 2002 and a third group
during 2003. At the conclusion of each residency period, there was an “open
weekend” for the public.
The artists developed the project organically with the help and support of
residents. The response of residents to Further Up In The Air was incredibly
positive and evaluations showed a real ownership and educational exchange
happening during the project, with residents becoming tour guides during “open
studios” when people were invited to visit the art works; the project honoured
and valued the place29. One effect of the artists’ work was to promote a sense
of confi dence and optimism among the new residents at a point of uncertainty
in their lives. Over 60 residents participated directly with many more visiting
exhibitions and events.
29 <http://www.urbanwords.org.uk/aplaceforwords/case-study-furtherupintheair.php>,
10.12.2014.
537
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
6. Conclusions
Traditionally, art has been placed in the public realm for reasons of aesthetic
enhancement, to create a memorial or simply in order to introduce art into
everyday life. However, since the early 1980s, Public Art has been advocated as
contributing to the alleviation of a range of environmental, social and economic
problems. Tim Hall and Chereen Smith say that:
Since the 1980s, Public Art has become closely associated with the regeneration of cities,
the aesthetic enhancement of urban environments and promoting tangible improvements in
people’s lives. Public Art is becoming increasingly ubiquitous in the economic, social and
cultural regeneration of these places30.
Locating it within the process of urban regeneration, since the 1980s Public
Art has been increasingly implicated in processes such as the rejuvenation of
decaying urban spaces, the development of process of urban regeneration, the
stimulation of central city economies and the enhancement of transformation
of urban images31.
All the aforementioned study cases highlight the direct connection that can
be established between Public Art and urban renewal. In these case studies, art
is not only taken to the public, but is also used as a means to help residents
relate to their environment.
Public Art is able to contribute to attractive, functional and fl exible urban
environment, streets, buildings and public spaces. Artworks and the role of the
artists in this context enhance the fabric of the urban framework, involving the
public through the creative process, adding economic value and creating a sense
of ownership.
According to Miles, the success of culture-led regeneration is dependent
upon the degree to which the reinvention of the urban landscape fi ts in with,
rather than being foisted upon, the identity of the place concerned.
It is suggested that the success of investment in iconic cultural projects depends above all
upon people’s sense of belonging to a place and the degree to which culture-led regeneration
can engage with that sense of belonging whilst balancing achievements of the past with the
ambition for the future32.
The need for regeneration was as much economic as cultural and, according
to Miles, this has to be the key for culture-led regeneration to succeed. Using
Public Art in urban regeneration and gentrifi cation, it is not only possible to
improve cultural facilities, but it is also possible to improve the local identity
30 Hall, Smith 2005, p. 175.
31 For further details refer to Goodey 1994, pp. 122-123.
32 Miles 2005, pp. 1019-1028.
538 LUCA PALERMO
and to attract new investments and fi nance able to revitalize the urban context
where the work of art is located.
The experiences described above show that Public Art can be a valuable
participatory tool for increasing the emotional ties of residents to an area,
provided that the art connects to their local identity. This does not only
strengthen local identity, but also increases the attractiveness of the area to
external investors and visitors.
Public Art is acknowledged to be an important component of urban
regeneration and gentrifi cation. Closely related to that is the fact that the
Public Art-led regeneration is connected to design-led regeneration, cultural
regeneration and to the promoting and marketing of the place.
In recent decades, the construction of a creative economy has become an
avowed policy goal of governments across the globe. In The Rise of the Creative
Class, Richard Florida argued that it was no longer industrial production but
creativity which was the source of new technologies, new industries, new wealth
and all other good economic things33.
Nowadays, Public Art, design and urban furniture contribute to the creation
and strengthening of a city’s brand that is considered essential in order to
maximise the impact of cultural endeavours. According to Tibbot, who argues
in favour of that idea,
If a cultural project is going to succeed in leading regeneration, it is crucial that it does so as
part of a holistic destination brand. This means the promotion not just of separate elements
of a destination but all of them, wrapping up individual attraction and buildings with the
infrastructure around them, to create a unifi ed destination brand and sense of place. The
overall brand should guide the long-term planning and operation of the destination as a
whole. It is only this sense of strong destination brand that is capable of connection with
the heart and gut of the consumer. Once it has achieved this, it is able to position itself in
the mind of visitors, and then to actually deliver market share and all the economic benefi ts
that fl ow from this. Cultural projects give emotional fuel for successful destination brands.
Cultural brands can also be adopted by commercial regeneration projects. Ultimately,
correctly planned cultural projects can add signifi cant value to regeneration34.
It is possible to say that art and culture have a strong economic dimension
and can be a key catalyst for urban regeneration and urban image renewal.
I think that the challenge is to consider art and culture not as a temporary
instrument directed towards external ends, but as an end in itself that can
develop its full potential in the long term35.
33 Florida 2002.
34 Tibbot 2002, p. 73.
35 For further details refer to Garcìa 2004, pp. 312-326.
539
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
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THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
Appendix
Fig. 1. Priory Cloister, Coventry
542 LUCA PALERMO
Fig. 2. Millenium Place, Coventry.
Fig. 3. Garden of International Friendship, Coventry.
543
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
Fig. 4. Blue Carpet, Newcastle upon the Tyne.
Fig. 5. Blue Carpet, Detail of a bench, Newcastle upon the Tyne.
544 LUCA PALERMO
Fig. 6. Blue Carpet, Details, Newcastle upon the Tyne.
Fig. 7. Up in the Air – Sheil Park, Liverpool 1999/2005
545
THE ROLE OF ART IN URBAN GENTRIFICATION AND REGENERATION
Fig. 8. The Artist Will Self, Up in the Air – Sheil Park, Liverpool 1999/2005
eum edizioni università di macerata
JOURNAL OF THE SECTION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE
Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism
University of Macerata
Direttore / Editor
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Texts by
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